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"Audaces fortuna iuvat!"
This Roman motto which literally means
"fortune favors the bold" has been cited as a common adage used by
business men during the apogee of Roman Imperial domination. Most
historians who have studied the Roman world of the first and second
centuries AD would most likely agree that the seafarers under the
protection of the Roman Empire would have held this motto dear to their
own hearts.
The Mediterranean Sea of this time has been referred to as
a "Roman Lake" by many historians. But this was most definitely not
always the case. In fact most of the knowledge of seafaring that the
Romans acquired was first discovered by other great sailors such as the
Greeks, Phoenicians, and Egyptians before them.
The Chinese of the Ming
Dynasty could equally claim that the Indian and Pacific Ocean later in
the 15th Century AD were "Chinese Lakes." These Chinese voyages of
Zheng He and his "treasure ships" left a lasting imprint upon the
history of seafaring. These voyages were filled with great scribes,
doctors, and scientists with great knowledge of seafaring and a desire
to acquire tribute for their emperor, Zhu Di, the Son of Heaven. But
how did these great ancient seafarers of the Mediterranean and those of
the Ming Dynasty China emerge to become the great lords of the sea?
This essay shall explore this question as well as these equally
important ones: Who were these seafarers? Where did they sail? What did
they do? How did the sail? How were their ventures organized? And why
did they go to sea? But in order to fully understand how these
questions apply to these two sea peoples, we must look at the cultures
themselves to determine how each was called to the sea.
It has been
said that the study of world maritime history is really a study of
different cultures. These various cultures determine not only why a
particular civilization goes to sea, but also when, where, how, and who
does so. Unlike Ming China, the Mediterranean is and does consist of
many different cultures. Over the centuries, because of these varying
cultures and the struggles that erupted over desired resources, the
Mediterranean has also come under the domination of many different
masters. This ever changing succession of various ruling states led to
innumerable maritime developments as one power sought to outdo the
other not only on land, but most importantly, on the Mediterranean Sea.
"Bringing of forty ships filled with cedar logs." So wrote an ancient
scribe in listing the accomplishments of Pharaoh Snefru, ruler of Egypt
about 2600 BC. The Egyptians were, according to most academic records,
among the very first civilizations along the Mediterranean to go to
sea. The Egyptian desire to go to sea probably first began in view of
the need to lower the cost of trade goods. Nearly all of these initial
voyages to sea began in frail boats using mostly human propulsion.
First with hands and later with oars, these voyages mostly stayed
within sight of land. The use of these vessels to transport goods came
in response to an economic desire to reduce the bottom line: lower
costs and increase profits.
Before the utilization of the sailing ship,
these valuable goods were carried overland thousands of miles and thus
the price of a good would increase with each mile and each middleman.
This utilization of trade by sail ship eventually led to perhaps the
first state sponsored sailing venture. Under the rule of Pharaoh
Mentuhotep III the need for myrrh and frankincense for ceremonies
increased. However, these products were derived from trees that grew in
only two places; Ethiopia and Somalia. This and later pharaohs derived
these trading enterprises by developing ports along the Red Sea to
assist traders in moving these and other goods down into Somalia or
Ethiopia and back again.
They discovered that a sea route would offer
an alternative to overland transport. This venture made it possible for
the Egyptian sailors to bring in these goods more cheaply, quickly and
efficiently. Though Egypt would be the first major trading nation, they
were not the first true maritime power in the Mediterranean. This honor
went to the Minoans who hailed from the island nation of Crete.
The
Minoans were the first to protect their trade with a powerful fleet.
This utilization of a navy to protect commerce would signal the shape
of things to come. Their trade goods were coveted by both Egyptian and
Phoenician royalty and for several years Crete prospered. But by 1500
BC Minoan civilization had collapsed, possibly due to a volcanic
eruption nearby and was replaced by a new maritime power: the
Phoenicians. The Phoenicians had great ships and great sailors as well
as the ports that were needed to support them. The Phonecians possessed
the timber needed to build sturdy ships and they would eventually make
it as far as the West Coast of Africa on their many trading
explorations.
Their two largest contributions to the later world would
be the founding of Carthage and the use of writing. The installation of
writing and its use by the Greeks in the future would create an
atmosphere that encouraged a high level of efficient trading in the
years to come. The next great power in the Mediterranean were the
Greeks. The Greeks would make many innovations that revolved
specifically around trade. Greeks developed large clay jars, called
amporas, to not only carry goods but also to measure them once they
arrived in a trading port. The Greek ships were also much stronger than
previous ships. They used edge to edge construction technique which
made them extremely seaworthy. They also placed lead sheathing over the
entire hull in order to protect it even further.
Once Alexander the
Great came to power, the many Greek harbors were also expanded to
adequately facilitate their prosperity as maritime trade reached an all
time high. Like the Phonecians, the Greeks set up many colonies
throughout the Mediterranean that aided in supporting the mother city.
The first challenge to the Greeks came from the Persians, but their
fleet was soundly defeated by the Greeks. The next antagonist would
succeed beyond most anyone's expectations and would become the new
dominant power in the Mediterranean for a thousand years; they were
known as the Romans.
How could a group of landlubbers from the north
such as the Romans come to dominate the Mediterranean and become a
great sea power in their own right in such a relatively short period of
time? Though they were land people, the reason that Rome became so
great, was because of their geographic location on the River Tiber.
Here both land and sea trading routes converged to yield the Romans a
glimpse unto what lied outside their city walls. One of Rome's main
competitors in trade was Carthage. Over the years they would develop a
bitter rivalry that would eventually end in three Punic Wars, complete
destruction of Carthage, and the rise of Rome as the great sea power of
the Mediterranean. This was done by adapting land based combat methods
on the sea.
After the destruction of Carthage, the Mediterranean would
become a "Roman lake" for many centuries to come and the life blood
that would keep the republic and then the empire strong for nearly a
thousand years would be trade.
Now that we have done a short overview
of the important maritime civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean,
lets move onto the Ming Dynasty China.
Even though China was involved
in the international aspects of trade, the biggest difference between
them and other parts of the world is that China did not actively seek
out trade partners. China did not send out trading vessels to different
nations to trade goods, other nations came to China. The bulk of
Chinese maritime trade during the Ming Dynasty was inter-coastal. This
consisted of Chinese junks sailing the waters between different
provinces and villages trading for food and luxury goods. Out of all
the nations of the world, the goods that China possessed were some of
the most coveted and most sought after.
It was with the goods of China
in mind that nations of the Mediterranean searched for a maritime route
that would bring these much sought after goods to them more cheaply,
quickly and efficiently. It could be successfully argued that China
always was a maritime nation of great skill but it was not until the
voyages of Zheng He that the true brilliance of their knowledge began
to shine. In many ways, these voyages were the first true scientific
voyages in history.
Many Chinese scientists journeyed with the treasure
fleets collecting data as they went forth. Many of the innovations that
the Chinese had developed over the last few hundred years were also put
to use on this voyage. One of the most important was the Chinese
understanding of magnetism that came to their comprehension from their
belief in chI which is an energy that runs through everything. This
understanding of magnetism helped the Chinese develop a magnetic
compass that significantly improved the distance that Chinese mariners
could travel.
All of this development and innovation was not
inexpensive and the Chinese government knew that the best way to bring
in more income was to establish more trade. This was only one of
several goals that Zheng He possessed when he set out with the first
great "treasure fleet" in 1405. Being that we have now looked briefly
at both the civilizations of the Mediterranean and that of the Ming
Dynasty China, we can address the specific question at hand. Who were
the seafarers? The answer is totally different depending on which area
of the world you are referring. In the Mediterranean the seafarers were
usually simple traders with only a limited knowledge of navigation and
the sailing of the sea. This would change somewhat as the Mediterranean
became a battleground and more and more seafarers had to have not only
a basic understanding of the sea but also knowledge of how it affected
military tactics.
There never was a centralized control of trade in the
Mediterranean therefore the people who were involved in trade were
seldom representative of a certain political ideology or nation.
Basically the seafarers of the Mediterranean were simple traders who
were born, raised and trained upon the sea. In comparison, Chinese
seafarers that comprised the treasure fleets were made up of people
from all over China. They made up a diverse group of not only sailors
but scientists, shipwrights, physicians, and other professions that
formed a group of not only devoted men eager to gain trading prospects
but also men in search of tribute for the emperor and scientific
discovery.
This is not to say that this was the case for all of the
seafarers in China. As stated before, China had a thriving coastal
trade for thousands of years, long before the departure of the treasure
fleets. These coastal traders were quite similar to their counterparts
in the Mediterranean. They were also simple traders with limited
knowledge of navigation in open water. The Chinese traders also were
independent and did not trade for the glory of the government but for
the their own sufficiency. This all began to change during the years of
the treasure fleets as the seafarers of China turned into the diplomats
and representatives of the emperor. Where did they sail? In the case of
the Mediterranean the sailing geography was usually limited to that
particular body of water.
Of course there were some exceptions to this
rule. The importance of the Red Sea to the development of Egyptian
trade cannot be overstated. The Persian Gulf is where all of the goods
coming from India and China were transferred to overland routes and
eventually other overseas routes and this made the Persian Gulf very
important in the link that kept the Mediterranean in the international
trade theater. Also many of the seafarers of the Mediterranean would
sail as far west as the coast of Africa and possibly the shores of
England, while also journeying into the Western Indian Ocean and all
through the many rivers and seas that constitute that territory.
In
China the situation was much more diverse. Though the "junk" traders
seldom left sight of the Chinese coast (excluding Taiwan), the
situation regarding the treasure fleet could not be more different.
Under the guidance of Zheng He, the seven different treasure fleets
that went forth between 1405 and 1433 sailed from as far east as
Australia and Batavia to as far west as Africa. They also sailed to
India and Arabia and numerous place in between. Because this was a
journey to gather patronage for the new emperor, Zhu Di, the treasure
fleets made as much landfall as possible and did so in the most
peaceful of manners to avoid potential conflict.
Without a doubt, it
would have been completely possible for these Chinese treasure ships to
sail around Africa and into Europe if so desired. What did they do? In
the Mediterranean they were mostly traders. Of course, warfare was
always a possibility when the time arose, but the main occupation of
the maritime civilizations of the Mediterranean was trade and commerce.
When there were no harbors to pull into they would trade on the
beaches. In the case of the Phoenicians they seldom saw their trading
partners, they left the goods on the beach and came back later to
collect the payment.
In the case of the treasure fleets of China,
things were much different. Their voyages were not about trade as much
as they were about receiving tribute for the emperor. When the fleet
made landfall, Zheng He and other representatives would go ashore to
inform the country that they were now a protectorate of China and that
they must pay tribute. They would also set up trade to be carried out
under the watchful eye of the Chinese government. In some cases, the
treasure fleet would even intervene in local wars to maintain harmony
throughout the empire of Zhu Di, the Sun of Heaven.
How did they sail?
The evolution of ship design was ever changing in the Mediterranean.
From the keeless ships of the early Egyptians to the strong ships of
the Greeks, ships in the Mediterranean were in a constant state of
flux. Much of this had to do with the demands put on vessels as trade
increased but a lot of this innovation that occurred also had to do
with the constant threat of warfare in the Mediterranean and the need
for stronger and better ships to meet this threat. The most popular
method of ship construction in the Mediterranean was beginning with a
lying the keel and ribs down first and then attaching the shell later
using different methods such as the mortises and tenons style which was
one of the most secure.
Most of the navigation was done by using
coastal landmarks but many of the seafarers were familiar with
celestial navigation and used this during the nighttime hours when not
obstructed by cloud cover. The technological innovations that were used
in the building of the treasure fleets are were remarkable. The Chinese
had dry-docks in which to build their ships. These ships also had
watertight compartments which made them remarkably seaworthy. Even
better than the development of these true ocean going vessels was the
creation of the floating magnetic compass and a vast array of gunpowder
weapons that made the fleet of Zheng He the most formidable on Earth
for centuries to come.
How were their sailing ventures organized? Why
did they go to sea? These last two questions seem to be interwoven and
can be addressed as more or less one question. As aforementioned, the
civilizations of the Mediterranean went to sea for one of two purposes,
trade or war. In the event of war, the sailing ventures were organized
but in the case of trade they were not. This is a direct reflection of
the geographic makeup of the Mediterranean.
Because there are so many
different cultures throughout the Mediterranean it seems logical that
their sailing ventures would not be well organized and for the most
part independent of other ventures. The people of the Mediterranean
went to sea for trade in independent trading vessels that directly
reflected their diverse civilizations and cultures. On the other hand,
China would be a story quite of a different nature. The treasure fleets
of Zheng He were extremely well organized and they went to sea not so
much for the trade as for the greater glory of the Chinese emperor.
This organization and dedication to country are a true reflection on
the people of Southern China. Even though there were many different
provinces the people were united by a common race and cultural
heritage. This is the exact opposite of the situation in the
Mediterranean. The treasure fleets were organized in a most managerial
way and the ships themselves were filled with scientists and scholars
whose sole reason for begin was to gain knowledge and promote their
emperor. This is a direct reflection of the enlightened attitude that
was prevalent at this particular time in Ming China. Comparing the
ancient mariners of the Mediterranean and those of the Ming Dynasty has
been a study of contrasts.
The Ming Dynasty, even though separated by
more than a thousand years from the ancient mariners of the
Mediterranean, were far more technologically advanced than any other
peoples at that time and had made more leaps in their overall seafaring
than any other peoples up to that point. Despite this, not long after
the last treasure fleet had made its last voyage and returned to China,
it halted fast and turned its back on the sea. This decision would cost
the Chinese very dearly in the years following the last voyage of the
treasure fleet and the near complete destruction and conquest of their
empire by western sea-power is a testament to the value of maintaining
a seafaring culture. The civilizations of the Mediterranean on the
other hand would never turn their back on the sea and would continue to
advance and become a solid, well trained seafarers. To this very day
they admire, persevere, and advance their nautical tradition.
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