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Literacy instruction in the US has traditionally been seen as a way
of socializing students into a number of roles in mainstream society
(Fingeret 1989). While the focus of literacy education has changed
periodically to reflect changes in political and social conditions in
the US, the purposes and standards of literacy, and the contents of the
curriculum have been consistently determined by ‘ experts ’, students
being perceived as the ‘objects ’ of instruction (1989 : 6). The
importance of considering participants’ reality in establishing goals
and selecting materials and of involving learners in the educational
planning process has not received adequate recognition. When
competency-based literacy education emerged in the 1970s, it seemed
that students might finally be involved in defining the competencies
that they wanted to achieve.
However, even today, most competency-based programs judge students’
skills by a pre determined list of skills which tend to reflect the
goals that those in power have deemed appropriate for them (Fingeret
1989). Therefore, it is very important, nowadays, for program
administrators and teachers to develop such alternative approaches as
whole language, learner centered, and participatory approach, to
traditional approaches which have tended to be more teacher-centered.
In the following section, the rationale, design, use, and research
findings about the effectiveness of each approach will be compared and
presented.
Whole Language Approach Rationale
An idea of a linear sequence from
reading to writing and from listening to speaking is not supported in
the whole language approach although a natural way of literacy and
learning is supported in the whole language approach. Emphasis is made
on speaking right away. Learners are also allowed to speak by mixing
their native language and words from the language they are learning
(Wrigley 1992: 29). It is also possible that learning start writing
before reading. They may compose stories orally and then the
approximations of print are put down, that are translated back to their
group or their teacher. (ibid. 29). The teaching process does not
involve the initiation with the teaching of words that later make
phrases and then sentences. Instead, a variety of written and oral
messages are given to the students and then the need for additional
support is carefully observed. It is also observed that which students
will go through greater challenges and then receive benefits (Rigg and
Kazemek 1993). The basic concept of the whole language approach is to
teach and learn language as a whole and it should not be broken into
parts such as phonics patterns, vocabulary lists, grammar exercise
etc., because the spirit of language is badly destroyed by breaking it.
The second most important concept of the whole language approach is the
four language modes provide strong support to each other and they
should not be separated from each other. The four language modes
include writing, reading, speaking and listening. (Rigg and Kazemek
1993).
Design
A beginning whole language class may explore themes, such as
‘people migrating to different places ’, ‘ countries gaining
independence ’, or ‘ families helping each other ’. the ideas and
concepts that are related to these themes are talked by learners. The
related pictures and symbols are collected and personal histories are
told. This interesting process is completed in many steps. First the
information is gathered and discussed. Then its analysis is done and
the result is kept into book form that is shareable with others.
(Huerta-Macias 1993, Rigg and Kazemek 1993).
Use
Cognitive and social aspects of language are focused in the
whole language approach. In this way, the learners become able to read,
talk and write together and their own way of learning is discussed.
(Wrigley 1992). Group interactions and demonstration are used in the
whole language approach for the exploration of the way in which
literacy and language is used for the expression of their thoughts and
the interpretation of their ideas.’ (ibid. 29). Activities involved in
the whole language learning are carefully planned. Focus is made
towards specific writing and reading strategies. Many options are
provided to learners to select what they want to write and read.
Advantages and Disadvantages According to Wrigley (1992), the whole
language approach offers a number of advantages for ESL learners. One
advantage is that reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills are
integrated. Learning to read and write becomes an extension of the
language learning process. Also, because the topics for discussion and
the generation of texts are taken from learners’ experiences, both oral
language skills and literacy skills may be learned in a more meaningful
context, which may motivate students. Finally, since the whole language
is an extremely flexible approach, it can be modified in a number of
ways to accommodate learners’ individual needs.
While the use of the whole language approach in the teaching of ESL
literacy may be extremely rewarding, it is also very time-consuming.
Since the use of this approach requires an incredible amount of
individualized planning and instruction, it places a great deal of
responsibility on the teacher for the management of the program
(Wrigley 1992). Also, the whole language approach has been criticized
for its lack of vocabulary control or reading skill development.
Nevertheless, even when using a whole approach, efforts can be taken to
structure lessons in such a way as to reinforce vocabulary and reading
skills. While many whole-language teachers admit that they find the
approach more taxing on their creativity and time, they also stress
that ‘ the use of whole language rewards their sense of professionalism
in that whole language requires teachers to make decisions ’ (O’Neil
1989 : 7).
Learner-Centered Approach Rationale
Close participation of learners
is involved in a learner-centered approach in the decision making
process that involves the method of teaching and the content of the
curriculum. In other words, the learner-centered orientation puts
primary emphasis on participants’ involvement with curriculum
development processes (i.e. on students setting their own goals,
exploring their own experiences, shaping the curriculum, and evaluating
their own learning) (Auerbach 1993).
Design Jurmo (1989) researched on the levels of learner
participation and found out that this approach contains different
levels of learners. The initial level of participation involves the
signing up a course and be there physically. The highest level of
participation includes the considerable responsibility and control of
learners for the activities to be performed in the classroom. The
design of this approach also focuses on learners’ real-life needs;
learner responsibility in setting personal and realistic goals and
determining the steps toward achieving those goals; and learner
self-assessment (Huerta-Macias 1993).
Use
The learner-centered approach involves collaboration between
teachers and learners; through ongoing dialogue, they determine the
content of the curriculum and the learning objectives. The whole
language approach is extended and complemented in a learner-centered
curriculum. This approach uses the background knowledge of the learners
and also used their experiences when a curriculum is developed. (Jurmo
1989).
Advantages and Disadvantages
As mentioned earlier, the advantage of
this approach is that learners possess responsibilities in setting
their own goals and determining the steps toward achieving those goals.
However, some who work more directly in the field of adult ESL literacy
debate about this type of instructional approach. For example, Anderson
(1988) has found out that there is a possibility that learners become
unable to express their wishes or needs regarding learning. ‘because of
low levels of self-confidence, because they have been ‘‘marginalized in
society ’’, or because they have preconceived ideas about appropriate
teacher and student roles’ (ibid. 18). Therefore, Auerbach (1990)
stresses that instead of ‘trying to cover content that has been
predetermined, teachers need to discover content that’s important to
their own students’ (ibid. 23).
Participatory Approach Rationale
The other interesting approach to
literacy, which has been referred to as a variant of whole language
(Spener 1990), involves a curriculum development process that is
‘participatory and is based on a collaborative investigation of
critical issues in family or community life’ (ibid. 177). Paolo Freire
in Brazil was the first to develop the participatory approach. Emphasis
is made on the sharing of decision making process and critical issues
related to the lives of learners are examined in this approach. This
approach is highly effective in preparing the learners for the
development of the skills that are essential for the participation in a
new culture and for the confrontation of all sorts of problems. So
problems are posed in this approached and uses communal problem solving
strategy. (ibid. 178).
Design strong emotional content containing themes can be discussed
in a classroom where the participatory approach is being used.
Responses can be obtained from learners about a story, picture, or
dialogue in which the required theme is discussed. Such themes may
include the relationship among teen-agers and their parents after
migrating to the United States. Their relationship in their home
culture and then in the US culture can be discussed and the reasons for
differences can be found. As appropriate, the literacy teacher might
integrate language development activities with these discussions
(Huerta-Macias 1993).
Use
Students are shown the relationship among words and word
families in many programs in which the participatory approach is
involved. The class chooses a ‘keyword’ that has strong meaning for the
group, and after discussing the concepts that underlie this word,
breaks it into syllables. New words are generated with the help of
these syllables. (Spener 1990).
Advantages and Disadvantages
As mentioned earlier, practitioners of
participatory literacy in ESL contexts in the US have questioned
Freire’s syllabary method. Since English is much less phonetically and
orthographically regular than Spanish or Portuguese (the language of
instruction in Freire’s Latin American programs), there has been a
shift in ESL participatory literacy programs towards the use of
‘whole-word’ and ‘text-focuses ’ methods (Adreini 1992 : 46). Other
programs have discontinued the use of generative words altogether,
preferring to use language experience and whole language techniques
developed for use with English. Participatory ESL literacy programs in
the US have, however, retained the two most distinctive features of the
Freirean approach, that of the generation of texts through authentic
dialogue between equally knowing learners and educators, and the posing
of problems related to issues in participants’ lives ’ (Spener 1990 :
180). Finally, Wrigley (1992) concludes that this approach works best
with groups who share the characteristics of the people that Freire
worked with: learners who share a common language and culture. However,
the approach is less effective with groups of learners who do not share
the same language and who are not prepared to discuss social or
personal issues in English.
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