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A General Theory of Crime by Gottfredson and Hirschi is considered as a disparate explanatory model for the development of criminal behavior. The theory is an excellent attempt at presenting a thorough explanation on the primal aspect of self-control, and proves that it is not a 'time stable trait', rather attachment to co-workers in early adulthood serves as a constraining tool on low self-control, in turn leading to 'distance'. Gotttfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Crime An overview of the Gottfredson and Hirschi' General Theory of Crime shows that it encompasses the development of criminal behavior of individuals in a given society, as well serves as an age-graded life course perspective. The emphasis given by the authors of the General Theory point out that both the elements of 'prudent and criminal behavior' in individuals can be predicted through the evaluation and assessment of lack of self-control alone. The authors thus argue that lack of self-control may not require the presence of crime, instead the trait of self-control can be changed through a number of variables including but not limited to those of opportunities and other constraints. (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990: 89) In this context, the subject authors have carried out a number of tests in support of their said predictions on lack of self-control and crime, although there are evidences which prove that the General Theory does not provide sufficient 'variance' in predicting criminal behavior. Gottfredson and Hirschi in their General Theory of Crime also takes into account and assumes that although the lack of self-control as one of the individual's characteristics somewhat remains static over time, this has no implications on the relationship between self-control and crime, as these are prone to change in the same individual. The authors' focus however remains pivotal on a casual and gradual process, as they note that the emotional investment of the parents during the course of child's development period, in particular during his or her development of self-control leads to 'desistance'. The General Theory of Crime thus contradicts other theories which prove that it is not the parents, rather the emotional attachment to a previous offender to a job, or in marriage which leads to desistance. The General Theory of Crime also contradicts the theories of majority of social scientists and psychologists that changes in personality characteristics are initiated from a number of social circumstances and further mediated by other factors. In presenting an overview and an insight on The General Theory of Gottfredson and Hirschi, one may also observe that this theory presents and somewhat attacks earlier theories on criminal behavior and development thereof the characteristics of a criminal in an individual. For example Bowlby in his theory presented in 1969 presented a strong relationship between infants and parents, and duly noted that it was this particular attachment that provided impetus to the development of criminal behavior, or served as a tool for restricting any such development in an individual. (Bowlby, 1969). In similar context, another theory on criminal behavior presented by Sampson and Laub in 1993 stressed on the attachment of the individual to a spouse or his or her relationship with co-workers at the workplace that served as a tool for the changes and subsequent development of criminal behavior in individuals (Sampson and Laub, 1993). Hypothesis: Self-control is inversely related to violent behavior; self-control is unrelated to job or marital attachments. Returning to our subject authors and their General Theory of Crime, it has also been proposed by these two authors that personal level explanations of criminal behavior, as also reiterated in the above paragraphs, though presumably acts as a tool for low self control. Yet, this is not the only "motivating force" which may lead to criminal behavior. Stressing on this particular point Gottfredson and Hirschi note that "the link between self control and crime is deterministic, but probabilistic, affected by opportunities and other constraints", (Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1993:53). Further stressing on the characteristic of self control, the author point out that the 'other constraints' may include attachments to a number of other factors such as family, or through relationships at the workplace, somewhat accepting the theories presenting by Sampson and Laub, 1990, and one presented by Bowlby in 1969. (Sampson and Laub, 1990; Bowlby, 1969) Nevertheless the emphasis of Gottfredson and Hirschi on the lack of self-control is on their predictions of a wide variety of behaviors, which includes for example crime as well as the individual's inability to forge a truly strong and long-term relationship. Once again, though this approach takes an opposition stand against earlier theorists who relate attachment to close relationships and or work attachments, but Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Crime presents a strong emphasis on the low self control and that it will not predict marital or workplace attachments. Hence, one could presume that the subject author’s theory presents a dichotomous trait of self control, one which could well be redefined to show that self control is a continuous rather a changing trait. Further insights to Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Crime shows that the author’s emphasis on self control grows ever stronger as we move on. For example, the authors are of the view that one can observe self-control as early as childhood and present some variables and characteristics to that respect. For example, the child's inability to postpone gratification, a low tolerance factors for frustration, and a tendency to engage in high levels of risk-taking behaviors. Furthermore, the authors are of the view that self-control is developed through the long-term and strong relationship with the parents with the individual. This has been termed as 'parental emotional investment' by the authors, as the child undergoes constant monitoring of the child's behavior, and recognition of and taking appropriate action as and when there is any deviant eruption in the same child, acts which could well be prevented by for example on the spot punishment or by making the child understand the difference between a deviant behavior and normal and healthy behavior. (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990: 95-97). The above emphasis by our subject authors on the trait of self control being "all or none" personality trait also opens up avenues for few criticisms as well, such as one which somewhat rejects the emphasis of self-control as being inhibited in early childhood. The critics on the other hand point out that the characteristic of self control is in fact a continuous process occurring through out the life of an individual, and does not end with the end of early childhood as proposed Gottfredson and Hirschi in their General Theory of Crime. The critics of the General Theory of Crime also assert that self control is not all a uniform predictor for criminal behaviors as presented by subject authors, instead one may observe a number of individuals with significantly lower levels of self control being more to the effects of a number of constraint factors. Some of the famous critics who opposed the General Theory of Crime include McGee and Newcomb in their writings of 1992, Pulkkinen and Pitikanen in their writings of 1993, all of who asserted that there exists a casual relationship between self-control and criminality thus negating the subject theory of crime which instead gives emphasis on self control as being developed in early childhood alone. In addition, the writings of Grasmick et al of 1993, Nagin and Paternoster of 1993 are all of the view that self-control predicts involvement in some crimes of force and fraud, a phenomenon particularly observed in males. (McGee and Newcomb, 1992; Pulkkinen and Pitikanen, 1993; Grasmick et al, 1993; Nagin and Patermoster, 1993) Hypothesis: The rigid and disinterested discipline of mother and father decrease child self-control. Mother's discipline and father's discipline have a reciprocal relationship. Another hypothesis presented by Gottfredson and Hirschi is that 'rigid and disintegrated discipline of mother and father has a tendency of decreasing a child's self control, with the mother's discipline and father's discipline have a reciprocal relationship. The focus, according to the authors should therefore be on the importance of including 'punishment of the child in the development of self control'. For both the authors, the parental disciplinary indicators serve as the measures to create parameters for parental punishment, as also serve as tools for nurturing self-control in children. Methods Used to Substantiate the Observations of General Theory of Crime In assessing the viability, effectiveness and protocol of the General Theory of Crime, some variables including those of parental management indicators have been used which provide evidence to this respect. For example indicators of early infant parent attachment include the fretfulness of the baby and the difficulties incurred during the feeding process of the infant. Reports from both these aspects were taken into account till the boys of a family reached the ages of 8 years. Though one may consider these aspects as one of the best indicators of insecure attachment, nevertheless they do provide available measures for the assessment of the development in the early stages of the child, the child's nature, as well as the nature of the mother's relationship with her son. The primary focus of attention in General Theory of Crime, one that gives importance to self control was assessed using a combination of two items. The first item included judgements about peers with particular reference to the aspect of daring of the young boy at age 10 to 11 years. This was duly combined with another item, which measured the characteristic of adventuresomeness of the same boy and the views of his parents at age, eight and nine respectively. As a second measure, the characteristic of adventuresomeness was measured. An observation of these variables revealed that both the items did not fall in the category of highly acceptable factors, nor were they found to have a strong correlation for that matter. The above measures also revealed that any changes in the 'empathy' was found to have its source in receiving empathy, in turn leading to a rise in the levels of self control in the respective child. A brief on the indicator used to assess and measure empathy shows that it is measured after assessing the two measures of self-control in the child. In addition the indicator of empathy was in fact a questionnaire which asked children as to what prevented them from indulging or adopting a deviant behavior at age sixteen. In response the teenagers came up with three different answers. First answer comprised of the boys citing both conscience and fear as the primary reasons for not 'getting into trouble'. The second answer gave priority to conscience as the most important trait, while the third response received from the youngsters noted that neither conscience nor fear was in any way helpful in preventing them from getting into trouble. Taking the example of conscience, it was observed that those who chose conscience as a characteristic for preventing them from getting into trouble experienced guilt or shame. This in turn proved that they also inhibited characteristic of empathy, in turn leading us to deduce that those without empathic feelings or abilities are less than likely to choose conscience as an important reason for preventing them from indulging in deviant behavior. Another method used in assessing the efficacy of the Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Crime is the measurement of parental behaviors in the early child's history. Though majority of the studies and research measures in parental behavior have emphasized on the indicators of delinquency, thus studying the later years of child's life. This method therefore takes into account and focuses on parental behaviors occurring at the onset of delinquency in adolescence. These studies focusing on the earlier child's history notes that harsh and strictly disciplined behavior of the mothers with their youngsters lead the children to take on a singular approach, nurturing them to stay away from and refrain from getting into trouble. In similar context, another variable, which measured the physical neglect of the boy, resulted in yet another dimension proving the implications of parental neglect. A second set of method used the father role as a variable, duly measuring the strictness of the father's discipline with higher scores proving in a stricter discipline. In line with the father's variable, the factor of overall quality of discipline was also studied, with a higher scores implying a lack of or disinterested discipline or harsh discipline. The higher scores achieved in assessing the role of father with respect to disciplining revealed that a larger segment of boys also experienced the absence of their fathers by the time the children reached the age of five for a period extending up to a month, hence this aspect too was included in the studies (Farrington and West, 1995). Results of the Above Studies of Parental Role in General Theory of Crime by Gottfredson and Hirschi The above methods and findings on the role of parents leads us to deduced that self-control is regressed on the early parenting and early empathy indicators. For example mother's disciplinary approach towards her child is regressed in areas including the early parenting variable of lack of attention, insecure attachment, rigid rules, and over-vigilance of the parents, as well as the higher scale which measures the father's absence and his disciplinary style. In the same context, the father's role leads us to deduce that the strict disciplinary style adopted for the child is regressed similar to the mother's variable of her particular disciplinary style. Concluding Comments - Suggestions These studies and their results thus provide ample evidence to Gottfredson and Hirschi's assumptions on the stability of self-control. They also provide relevant predictor variables of self-control such as the father's absence and his discipline, both of which serve to decrease self-control. In contrast, rigid and over-vigilant rules imposed by parents, irrespective of the father or the mother have a tendency to increase self-control. The rigid rules and parent's vigilance also provide for a better monitoring of youth who may have tendencies of insecure attachments, with the exception of father's strict discipline that has been found to have a more than detrimental effect on the self control of youth. The above study of Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Crime has provided ample data on the development, study of, and implications of early child's history with that of development of criminal behavior. Though our subject authors have time and again emphasized on the stability and early link for the onset and development of criminal behavior, and its relationship with the characteristic of self-control, as also studied in detail in the above paper. Later findings and studies have more than contradicted the subject theory altogether. The result is that today we have a number of sociologists and psychologists confirming the theory of self-control as being a continuous phenomenon. It is also found, somewhat in contradiction to our subject authors that self control can be directly modified and cannot be taken as an effective predictor for the occurrence of imprudent behavior. In addition, there are more than likely chances for former offenders to inhibit characteristics of low-self control in their jobs or familial attachments. The above studies also find that the element of empathy may also be critically important in the development of a attachment relationship. The above paper also leads to suggest that any future studies on criminal behavior and its investigation must also include the role played by empathy in the process of attachment as well as desistance. This can be accomplished through detailed studies on marital quality, marital satisfaction, and work satisfaction to better understand the complex relationships, which may serve as a positive tool in nurturing an environment of attachment and emphatic understanding. This approach may also perhaps shed light to earlier studies which duly gave impetus to the emphatic understanding and its positive role in providing for a secure attachment, the development of empathy, as well as desistance. Some of the key areas that also needs equal emphasis are such vital areas as the use of substance abuse in both men and women, and their implications on their children, in particular those in the earlier or adolescent part of their lives. There must also be studies on violent men and the implications of this violent attitude on the wives as well as the children present inside the homes, who first become witness to violence at home, and then exhibit similar trends and attitudes when outside their homes. The emphasis therefore must focus on the relationships between substance abuse, violent behavior, and emphatic understanding, aspects, which have, are found missing in Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Crime. Another vital area that need to be addressed in future studies is the ideological beliefs of hegemonic masculinity and its interference with their relationships with women, in turn providing for a truly confusing environment for the youngsters. Then there is the practice of men's capacity to take care of their own children, or single male parenting, which too needs detailed study as this too has been to have a profoundly adverse implications on the youngsters of today who have to bear the loss of the their motherly affection and love, aside from the characteristics of empathy and understanding which perhaps originates from the mother alone. In the context of the subject General Theory of Crime by Gottfredson and Hirschi, though the above overview has to an extent proven the theory to be correct and applicable. However, studies and literature such as that of Sampson and Laub's has found more support, as compared to 'The General Theory of Crime' as discussed in the above paper. This is further confirmed in the premise that low self-control is a not a stable trait, and it does not show any consistency in predicting deviant behavior. Theories of Age-Graded Life Course as presented by Sampson and Laub are evidence to this effect. In addition there still exist some flaws or lacking in content, which can provide an extra impetus to the application of the same theory. For example, both the early-parent attachment and later attachment relationships must be assessed in careful detail through the use of ethnographic studies of parental behaviors. These may include parental nurturing, emphatic responsiveness of the parents towards their infants, and the timely decisions to the response and needs of the child. In addition, a carefully chosen pathway in better understanding our children can be accomplished through the study of the children's nature, guiding them towards a correct direction, and providing them strengths whey are needed. Perhaps one of the most significant drawbacks is the failure to include female populations, and ethnic/racial minorities, which can truly serve to provide comprehensive set of data not only for the welfare of the said groups, but more so because of their increasing role in the socio-economic sphere of American life. These groups to exhibit tendencies of deviant attitudes, and they too must be taken in future studies, providing for a comprehensive set of information to redress and attempt to minimize crime in our societies. References Bowlby, J., (1947) “Forty-four Juvenile Thieves: Their Characters and Home Life” London: Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox. Gottfredson, M., and Hirschi, T., (1990) “A General Theory of Crime”, Stanford University Press Hirschi, T., (1979) " Separate and Unequal is Better." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 16:35-38. Gottfredson, M., (1993) "Commentary: Testing The General Theory of Crime." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 30:47-54. Grasmick, H. G., Tittle, C. R., Bursik, R. J., and Arneklev, B. J., (1993) "Testing the Core Empirical Implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Crime." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 30:5-29. Laub, J. H., Nagin, D S. and Sampson, R. J., (1998) "Trajectories of Change in Criminal Offending: Good Marriages and the Desistance Process." American Sociological Review 68:225-238. Laub, J. H., and Sampson, R J. (1993) "Turning Points in the Life Course: Why Change Matters to the Study of Crime." Criminology 31:301-325. Moffitt, T. E., (1997) "Adolescent-Limited and Life-Course Persistent Offending: A Complementary Pair of Developmental Theories," Pp. 11-54 in Developmental Theories of Crime and Delinquency, Advances in Criminological Theory, edited by Terence P. Thornberry. Transaction Publishers Nagin, D. S. and Farrington, D. P., (1992) "The Onset and Persistence of Offending." Criminology 30:501-528. Nagin, D. S., and Paternoster. R. (1991) "On the Relationship of Past to Future Participation in Delinquency." Criminology 29:163-189. Nagin, D. S., and Paternoster. R., (1993) "Enduring Individual Differences and Rational Choice Theories of Crime." Law and Society Review 27:467-496. Paternoster, R., and Brame, R., (1997) "Multiple Routes to Delinquency? A Test of Developmental and General Theories of Crime." Criminology 35:49-84. Pulkkinen, L., and Pitkanen, T., (1993) "Continuities in Aggressive Behavior From Childhood to Adulthood." Aggressive Behavior 19:249-263. Sampson, R. J. and Laub, J. H., (1993) ‘Crime in the Making Pathways and Turning Points Through Life’, Harvard University Press. McGee, L., and Newcomb, M. D., (1992) "General Deviance Syndrome: Expanded Hierarchical Evaluations at Four Ages from Early Adolescence to Adulthood." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 60:766-776. Additional Readings : Sampson, R. J. and Laub, J. H., (1996). "Socioeconomic Achievement in the Life Course of Disadvantage Men: Military Service as a Turning Point, Circa 1940-1965." American Sociological Review 61:347-367. Paternoster, R., and Brame, R., (1997) "Multiple Routes to Delinquency? A Test of Developmental and General Theories of Crime." Criminology 35:49-84. Nagin, D. S. and Farrington, D. P., (1992) "The Onset and Persistence of Offending." Criminology 30:501-528. Nagin, D. S., and Paternoster. R. (1991) "On the Relationship of Past to Future Participation in Delinquency." Criminology 29:163-189. |
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