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For those who are beginning a study of sociology, sociological
theory may represent somewhat of a departure from the study of
sociological issues. The study of sociology may provide an interesting
and relevant discussion of contemporary issues.
In contrast, sociological theory may appear to be overly concerned
with historical issues and views of writers which are no longer
relevant. Sociological theory provides a set of frameworks within which
current issues can be examined. The following notes contain some
comments and analysis of the nature of sociological theory.
There are many different and conflicting approaches to the study of
society within sociology, and these different approaches are generally
part of or derive from different theories of sociology.
Hadden provides only a very brief discussion of the nature of
sociological theory. In contrast, Wallace and Wolf spend all of Chapter
1 providing a more extensive discussion of the variety of ways that
sociological theory can be approached.
What the major sociological theories do is adopt a relatively
consistent set of definitions and assumptions, define concepts, develop
statements and propositions, and from these build an overall model of
the social world. This model may refer to only one portion of the
social world (e.g. symbolic interaction approaches deal only with
social interaction at the small group level) or they may be
comprehensive models that explain the large structures of society as
well as interaction among individuals and small groups (e.g. theories
of Parsons and Weber). Such a model will lead to hypotheses which,
hopefully, can be tested using empirical observation or data concerning
the social world. As a result, each theory also has some methodology or
some methodological approaches associated with it.
If the theory or theoretical model is to prove its worth, it must
also help us understand or explain some part of the social world,
perhaps leading to development of social policy, or leading to
recommendations concerning social practice. In summary, a sociological
theory can be considered to be a framework that leads to a model of the
social world.
A theory is likely to be more systematic, consistent, and carefully
considered than are everyday explanations based on personal experience
and observation. This does not make it better than the latter, but a
theory may be more generally applicable to a variety of social
situations. One criterion of a good theory is that it is at least
somewhat universal, being applicable to a variety of issues,
situations, places, or times. No theory can be expected to explain all
aspects of the social world, and each theory needs to be tested in
particular circumstances.
Wallace and Wolf begin in a similar manner to that of Hadden by
noting that sociological theories are ways of looking at the world.
They then discuss various characteristics of theory in general and
social theory in particular, arguing (i) that it should be systematic,
having comprehensive discussions of social life, leading to new
insights, and allowing for its ideas to be widely disseminated and
available to a wide audience; and (ii) that it should show some
commonality of different social actions and events, that is, it must
have a way of sorting through, organizing, and classifying the myriad
aspects of social life.
One way that Wallace and Wolf demonstrate the usefulness of
sociological theory is to discuss how it can be applied to two specific
issues – formal education and the role of women in contemporary society
(WW, pp, 14-15). If sociological theory is to be relevant in
contemporary society, it has to be useful in developing an
understanding of and explanation of social issues. Otherwise it may be
only an elaborate set of ideas which have little relevance to the
social world and to the people who form the social world. As much as
possible,
I will attempt to use the same issues as Wallace and Wolf in each
section of the course, showing how the different social theories can be
applied to concrete issues like education and the role of women and
men.
Since there are many different approaches to sociological theory, it
might be thought that these different approaches are contradictory or
mutually exclusive. The theories of Marx and Weber have sometimes been
presented in this form – with Weber's ideas formed to counter those of
Marx. Most writers now consider them more complementary, with Weber
addressing issues that Marx neglected. Similarly, many of the other
approaches can also be considered complementary, asking different
questions, using different methodologies, and providing different
answers.
At the same time, some of the approaches are alternatives to each
other – for example, the consensus model of structural functionalism
must be considered to contradict many of the conflict theories.
2. Sociology as Science?
There are many different sciences and to say that something is
science and scientific can be misleading. In addition, there are many
who have misused science, or used it as a screen to hide poor theory
and analysis. At the same time, there is something systematic about
most of the disciplines that call themselves scientific, something that
makes them different from speculation, religion or purely abstract
thought.
From Cuff et al. (p. 4) one characteristic of science is: First, an
approach that claims to be scientific ... must demonstrably have
empirical relevance to the world. An empirical relevance involves
showing that any statements, descriptions and explanations used or
derived from this approach can be verified or checked out in the world.
What types of approaches would not meet this standard? Philosophy,
mathematics, humanities and much of religion would not meet these
standards. Of course, much of what passes for science might not either.
What this shows is not that the other forms of knowledge are
illegitimate, but that they are different ways of reasoning.
The second part of a scientific approach is a set of methods or procedures.
A scientific approach necessarily involves standards and procedures
which not only show how 'results' were achieved, but are also clear
enough for other workers in the fields to attempt to repeat them, that
is, to check them out with the same of other materials and thereby test
the results. A scientific approach necessarily involves standards and
procedures for demonstrating the 'empirical warrant' of its findings,
showing the match or fit between its statements and what is happening
or has happened in the world. (Cuff, p. 4).
The second part of the criteria rules out visions, divine
inspiration, and perhaps even intuition (although the latter seems to
be important in the development of new approaches -- part of the
feminist critique of "scientific method" as it is usually understood is
that intuition is downplayed). If a scientific claim has been made,
then a researcher or theorist must allow, and even encourage, others to
retest the claims made. Even if the claim is found to be false or
partly wrong, the claim may have an important influence on ideas and
ways of thinking about and understanding the world. (E.g. continental
drift, staples theory).
According to the Cuff et al., the two criteria for a scientific
approach are that there be empirical relevance and clear procedures.
Forms of knowledge that satisfy these two criteria can be termed
scientific. Note though that Cuff et al. do not claim that scientific
insights are always superior to other insights. The authors do say
though that scientific insights can be "verified by empirical testing.”
Perhaps somewhat ironically, one of the key aspects of a scientific
approach is that it can be negated or disproved. Religious knowledge or
artistic expression cannot really be proved incorrect.
The notions of repeated testing, having systematic standards and
procedures, having statements and approaches that can be disproved, and
having some match or fit between what is theorized and what does happen
are important. Note that repeated testing may not mean repeatability.
In the social sciences, much research is not repeatable, but other
researchers can examine the same issue or problem. In doing this being
open to others re-examining the same issues and problems is crucial.
Because of the confusion over the meaning of science, and the
difference between natural and social science, I sometimes prefer to
call sociology systematic investigation and theorizing about human
social relationships and interaction.
Note that within this approach to what science is, there is nothing
that prevents quite different views and approaches from emerging, and
all of them may be considered to be scientific. Empirical tests may
negate some approaches, but only after considerable periods of time. No
approach is likely to have all of its propositions and statements never
being proved incorrect. Even a poor theoretical approach may contain
some correct statements and propositions.
Industrialization and Urbanization:
Trade, commerce, finance and exploration all developed rapidly after
1500. Changes in the organization of agriculture helped to increase
food production so that population could grow, and ultimately also
meant that there were more people in rural areas than needed earlier.
Cities had begun to develop as isolated centers for trade and commerce
in the middle ages.
These cities were important for their economic role and also for
their political role: as self-governing units free of feudal control
(democracy begins to develop) and as centers for the emergence of the
new middle classes or the bourgeoisie. These changes took place through
much of Europe, and at the end of the 1700s, the stage was set for
major developments in European society. In the economic sphere, the
Industrial Revolution began in Britain, changing forever the relative
roles of agriculture and industry, and introducing a period when change
would become the norm in production of goods and services.
Britain was clearly the leader, but other countries also had
industrial revolutions, although somewhat later. Britain developed
cotton textile production in factories. The nature of production
changed dramatically, with more and more production taking place in
factories.
The way in which this took place changed the social order -- from
lords and serfs to capitalists and workers. The Industrial Revolution
has never stopped, with continual changes in the nature of production
occurring after this. Production of industrial commodities also began
to be centered in urban areas, and the population shift from rural to
urban began.
Over time, the effects of the Industrial Revolution have spread to
all areas of the world. In this sense, the effect is universal, and
theories describing the new economy of capitalism can also claim
certain universality.
Religion and Secular Thought:
The teachings of the church in the middle ages have been called the
"Christian paternalist or corporate ethic," reflecting the idea of
society as a single entity or corporation. Within this traditional form
of society the individual was not important, nor the basis for analysis
of society.
The common person was to take his or her place in society and carry
out his or her duties willingly. Society could be compared to a
traditional family with the Church or God as father and with the others
as willing subjects in this institution. Accepting leadership and not
questioning authority. These traditional teachings of the Church also
were ant capitalist -- prohibiting profit and interest and discouraging
innovation, trade and gain.
The challenge to the authority of Rome began in the 14th Century,
but the Reformation is usually dated as beginning with Martin Luther
posting his 95 theses to the door of the Wittenberg church on October
31, 1517. In most countries of Western Europe, Protestant groups
emerged over the next few years. In England, the conflict between Henry
VIII and Rome led to the break with Rome in 1534.
These developments challenged the authority of traditional thought
in various ways. (i) At the minimum, they meant several sources of
independent thought, rather than having authoritative ideas coming from
Rome. (ii) The notion of a single entity or corporation as an adequate
description of society was shattered. (iii) Individualism began to be
promoted, since many of the Protestant doctrines emphasized the
relationship of the individual to God, without necessarily having the
Church involved. (iv) The possibility of the development of secular
thought.
If the Church is no longer the sole authority, and different forms
of relationship with God could exist, this could open the possibility
of individual interpretations which do not involve God. By the 1700s, a
much more open view of ideas became possible.
The new Protestant churches place less emphasis on the salvation
through the church and tended to emphasize personal salvation. Max
Weber considered this more individualistic approach to be one of the
major forces that gave impetus to the development of capitalism in
Western Europe.
Science and Technology:
The physical sciences had shown tremendous developments in the
understanding of the physical world. Galileo (1564-1642, Italian),
Kepler (1571-1630, German) and Newton (1642-1727, English) each
combined careful observation of the movement of physical bodies with
reasoning to obtain laws of motion.
These laws could be described mathematically and were universal in
their application. In addition, these laws were useful in a practical
way -- they could be used to help understand motion and could be
adapted to produce new technologies. Zeitlin argues that these
developments "had an incalculable impact on the intellectuals of the
Enlightenment.
Here was a magnificent triumph of reason and observation, the new
method that takes observed facts and advances an interpretation that
accounts for what is observed, so that if the interpretation is
correct, it can guide observers in their quest for new facts."
(Zeitlin, p. 3). Political Changes:
The old political system began to break down in England by the
1600s. There the parliament became supreme, with the authority of the
king being replaced by that of parliament between 1640 and 1688. This
can be interpreted as the victory of the bourgeoisie, or middle
classes, in the political arena -- replacing the exclusive rule of
aristocracy and landowners. In France, change took place more slowly,
but when change did occur it was much more spectacular. The French
Revolution of 1789 overthrew the old order in a few months and created
dramatic changes very quickly.
Many of the ideas that had been developed in the Enlightenment were
put into practice -- with the ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity
setting the basis for a completely new social and political order.
These changes also represented the victory for the new middle classes
in France, and the beginnings of societies based on the individual and
individualism. The American Revolution carried many of the same ideas.
While democracy was slow to take root, the new slogans and structures
began to move in this direction in the political world.
Canada had no such successful revolution, but the forces of
democracy did have some effect within this country as well. While
Canada remained a colony until 1867, with colonial influences
continuing until much later, Canada also developed some forms of
democratic rule.
Socialism was another political current that was influential. In the
English and in the French Revolution there were those who wanted to
take equality seriously and create equality for all, not just for the
middle classes. Ideas of communal ownership or ownership by all emerged
with the Levelers in England. In the French Revolution, Babeuf argued
for an egalitarian society and said that the existing government would
have to be toppled by force.
There had been a long history of peasant revolts, but these did not
create permanent organizations. With the development of industry,
workers began to form trade unions. While it took considerable time for
these to develop, they did show the effectiveness of the organization
of ordinary working people. Robert Owen (1771-1858) was a successful
British industrialist who had a vision of a better society. He
established a model workers' community in New Lanark, Scotland where
workers had decent wages and children were educated. He argued for
creation of a society of equals and for social reforms. What is
important about these is that there were socialist ideas of equality
and improvement of society during the early nineteenth century.
These were to have a strong influence on the writings and activities of Marx.
References
Cuff, E. C., W. W. Sharrock and D. W. Francis, Perspectives in
Sociology, thrid edition, London, Routledge, 1992. HM.6 P37 1984.
Hadden, R. W., Sociological Theory: An Introduction to the Classical
Tradition, Peterborough, Broadview Press, 1997.
Hunt, E. K., Property
and Prophets: the Evolution of Economic Institutions and Ideologies,
sixth edition, New York, Harper and Row, 1990.
Ritzer, G.,
Sociological, Theory, third edition, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1992. HM24
R4938
Rosenau, P. M., Post-modernism and the Social Sciences: Insights,
Inroads, and Intrusions, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1992.
Wallace, R. A. and A. Wolf, Contemporary Sociological Theory: Expanding
the Classical Tradition, fifth edition, Upper Saddle River, N. J.,
Prentice-Hall, 1999.
Zeitlin, Irving M., Ideology and the Development
of Sociological Thought, fourth edition, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.,
Prentice Hall, 1990. HM19 Z4
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